Pelagianism, Semi-Pelagianism, Catholicism and Calvinism

Pelagiansim, the name came from Pelagius (c. 350 to 425 AD), believes that we have freedom to will and to work for our salvation.  It rejects original sin and considers God’s grace to be facilitator, i.e. it is not something necessary for our salvation.  Because in Pelagianism we can will our salvation there is no predestination.

Semi-pelagianism believes in original sin that affects all mankind. However in semi-pelagianism we can still use our freedom to take the first step in our salvation and then God helps us through His Grace – in other words human freedom comes before God’s Grace.  Although God’s Grace is necessity, since we can take the first initiative in our salvation semi-pelagianism also rejects predestination.

Catholicism believes in original sin, which makes us unable to take the first step in our salvation.  God takes the initiative to save us by giving us His Grace and we have freedom to cooperate with this Grace or not.  Since the initiative for our salvation belongs to God there is predestination. God chooses whom He wants to save but condemns no one to hell. Those who end up in hell do so because they use their freedom to reject His Grace.

Calvinism believes in original sin and, like Catholicism, also believes we cannot take the first step in our salvation – they call this condition total depravity.  God takes the initiative to save us by giving us His Grace but it disagrees with Catholicism on how we response to His Grace. In Calvinism we don’t have freedom and this means God predestined some to heaven by giving them His Grace, which is irresistible to them and foreordained the rest to hell by withholding His Grace from them.

Three earliest manuscripts of Old Testament in Greek

Three earliest manuscripts of Old Testament in Greek are Codex Vaticanus, Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Alexandrinus.  A Codex (plural Codices) is sheets of papyrus or parchment folded in the middle and sewed together.  It resembles modern books, except that its sheets are not papers but papyrus or parchments.  Papyrus is made from the stem of papyrus plant that grows in the shallow water of the Nile delta while parchment or vellum is made from the skins of (young) sheep, goats and antelopes. What we know today as paper, invented in China in c. 109 AD, was unknown to European Christians until 13^th century AD.

Codex Vaticanus, its name came from Vatican library was written in c. 4^th century AD.  Its Old Testament is Greek LXX except Daniel of which Greek translation made by Theodotion (end of 2^nd century AD). The order of Old Testament books are: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 to 4 Kingdoms (equal to 1 & 2 Samuel and 1 & 2 Kings), 1 to 2 Chronicles, 1 Esdras (apocrypha), 2 Esdras (Ezra Nehemiah), Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Job, Wisdom, Sirach, Esther, Judith, Tobit, Twelve Minor prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Baruch, Lamentations, Epistle of Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel. It does not have books of Maccabees.

Codex Sinaiticus was discovered in St. Catherine Monastery of Mount Sinai in 1844. It also belongs to 4^th century AD and, unfortunately, was partially mutilated – what remain do not reveal the whole Old Testament books it formerly had. They are: Genesis, Numbers, 1 Chronicles, 2 Esdras (equal to Ezra – Nehemiah), Esther, Tobit, Judith, 1 Maccabees, 4 Maccabees, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Twelve Minor Prophets (incomplete), Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Wisdom, Sirach and Job.

Codex Alexandrinus belongs to fifth century AD – its name came from Alexandra in Egypt.  Together with Codex Sinaiticus it now belongs to British library in London. Its Old Testament part consists of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 to 4 Kingdoms (equal to 1 & 2 Samuel and 1 & 2 Kings), 1 and 2 Chronicles, Twelve Minor Prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Baruch, Lamentations, Letter of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, Esther, Tobit, Judith, 1 Esdras (apocrypha), 2 Esdras (equal to Ezra – Nehemiah), 1 to 4 Maccabees, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Songs of Songs, Wisdom and Sirach.  The list of content has (apocryphal) Psalms of Solomon at the end but the text was not in the Codex.

In all three Codices deuterocanonical books are interspaced with protocanonical books, i.e. they are treated indifferently.  The fact that they differ indicates that Christians in that time did not have fixed Old Testament books (what we call now as Canon of Old Testament). It nevertheless shows the acceptance of deuterocanonical books among Christians in those days.

Calvin on Perpetual Virginity of Mary

While most Protestants reject perpetual virginity of Mary, it was not the position adopted by one of Reformers, John Calvin.  In his commentary on Harmony of the Evangelists Matthew, Mark and Luke he wrote on Matthew 1:25

And knew her not This passage afforded the pretext for great disturbances, which were introduced into the Church, at a former period, by Helvidius [c. 4^th century AD]. The inference he drew from it was, that Mary remained a virgin no longer than till her first birth, and that afterwards she had other children by her husband. Jerome [c. 347 to 420 AD], on the other hand, earnestly and copiously defended Mary’s perpetual virginity. Let us rest satisfied with this, that no just and well-grounded inference can be drawn from these words of the Evangelist, as to what took place after the birth of Christ. He is called first-born; but it is for the sole purpose of informing us that he was born of a virgin. It is said that Joseph knew her not till she had brought forth her first-born son: but this is limited to that very time. What took place afterwards, the historian does not inform us. Such is well known to have been the practice of the inspired writers. Certainly, no man will ever raise a question on this subject, except from curiosity; and no man will obstinately keep up the argument, except from an extreme fondness for disputation.

John Calvin, Commentary on a Harmony of the Evangelists, Matthew, Mark and Luke, First Volume (page 107)

Calvin understood that brothers of Christ were his relatives (cousins) and this is in line with what Catholics believe.

The word brothers, we have formerly mentioned, is employed, agreeably to the Hebrew idiom, to denote any relatives whatever; and, accordingly, Helvidius displayed excessive ignorance in concluding that Mary must have had many sons, because Christ’s brothers are sometimes mentioned.

John Calvin, Commentary on a Harmony of the Evangelists, Matthew, Mark and Luke, Second Volume (page 215)

Luke VIII.19.  And his mother and his brethren came to him.  There is an apparent discrepancy here between Luke and the other two Evangelists; for, according to their arrangement of narrative, they represent Christ’s mother and cousins as having come.

John Calvin, Commentary on a Harmony of the Evangelists, Matthew, Mark and Luke, Second Volume (page 89)

English translation is taken from Calvin’s Commentaries, Vol. 16, translated by Rev. William Pringle, published by Baker Book House, Grand Rapid Michigan.  All Calvin’s Commentaries are available online at http://www.ccel.org/.

Septuagint (LXX) & Catholic and Protestant’s Old Testament

Septuagint or LXX is Greek translation of Old Testament books. According to a story recorded in the Letter of Aristeas, translation of five books of Law (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Number and Deuteronomy) was made during the reign of King Ptolemy II of Egypt (287 to 247 BC).  Seventy-two elders, six from each twelve Jewish tribes, did the translation in seventy-two days, hence the name Septuagint or LXX (Latin numeral for seventy).  Greek translations of other books were made subsequently.  In LXX Samuel and Kings are referred as four books of Kings (or Reigns) while the Greek name of Chronicles is Paralipomenon and Esdras is the Greek name of Ezra. Esther and Daniel have more chapters in LXX – those of Daniel are Prayer of Azariah, Song of Three Young Men, Suzanna and Bel & Dragon. Without its LXX chapters, as in Jewish and Protestant Bible,  Esther is the book of the Bible that does not mention God or Lord. Most of quotations in New Testament are taken from Septuagint. Well-known example is Isaiah 7:14 quoted in Matthew 1:23: a virgin shall conceive and bear a son (RSV). The word “virgin” appears in LXX while the same verse in Hebrews uses “young woman”. Luke relied on LXX when he wrote the name Cainan as one of the ancestors of Christ (Luke 3:36, compare with Genesis 11:12). 

The oldest manuscript of LXX we have now belongs to fourth century AD.  The number of books and their arrangement differ in different manuscript. The following Table gives books of LXX, Catholic and Protestant’s Old Testament.  Note that grouping of books in both Catholic and Protestant’s Old Testament follows that of LXX.

LXX (Septuagint)	Catholic Old Testament	Protestant Old Testament
The Law Genesis Exodus Leviticus Number Deuteronomy	The Law Genesis Exodus Leviticus Number Deuteronomy	The Law Genesis Exodus Leviticus Number Deuteronomy
Historical books Joshua Judges Ruth 1 Kings 2 Kings 3 Kings 4 Kings 1 Paralipomenon 2 Paralipomenon 1 Esdras 2 Esdras 1 – 10 2 Esdras 11 – 23 Tobit Judith Esther with LXX chapters Books of Maccabees (up to four books)	Historical books Joshua Judges Ruth 1 Samuel 2 Samuel 1 Kings 2 Kings 1 Chronicles 2 Chronicles Ezra Nehemiah Tobit Judith Esther with LXX chapters 1 Maccabees 2 Maccabees	Historical books Joshua Judges Ruth 1 Samuel 2 Samuel 1 Kings 2 Kings 1 Chronicles 2 Chronicles Ezra Nehemiah Esther without LXX chapters
Poetical or Wisdom books Job Psalms (151 chapters) Proverbs Ecclesiastes Song of Songs Wisdom of Solomon Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)	Poetical or Wisdom books Job Psalms (150 chapters) Proverbs Ecclesiastes Song of Songs Wisdom of Solomon Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)	Poetical or Wisdom books Job Psalms (150 chapters) Proverbs Ecclesiastes Song of Songs
The Prophets Isaiah Jeremiah Lamentations Baruch Letter of Jeremiah Ezekiel Daniel with LXX chapters Hosea Joel Amos Obadiah Jonah Micah Nahum Habakkuk Zephaniah Haggai Zechariah Malachi	The Prophets Isaiah Jeremiah Lamentations Baruch Letter of Jeremiah Ezekiel Daniel with LXX chapters Hosea Joel Amos Obadiah Jonah Micah Nahum Habakkuk Zephaniah Haggai Zechariah Malachi	The Prophets Isaiah Jeremiah Lamentations Ezekiel Daniel without LXX chapters Hosea Joel Amos Obadiah Jonah Micah Nahum Habakkuk Zephaniah Haggai Zechariah Malachi

Nomenclature of books of Esdras is confusing. The same name can refer to different books or the same book can have different names.  The following Table provides the detail:

Septuagint (LXX)	Vulgate	English Bible (RSV, KJV)	Slavonic Bible
2 Esdras (1 to 10)	1 Esdras	Ezra	1 Esdras
2 Esdras (11 to 23)	2 Esdras	Nehemiah	Nehemiah
1 Esdras	3 Esdras (apocrypha)	1 Esdras (apocrypha)	2 Esdras
	4 Esdras (apocrypha)	2 Esdras (apocrypha)	3 Esdras
Vulgate is Latin translation of the Bible